Japanese Corporate Culture

Introduction Corporate culture is defined as rules, values, beliefs, and norms, which are shared by all stakeholders of the firm. Norms influence the individual’s preferences and behaviour in the organisation. Culture is present in every organisation and it develops as company grows (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 319). It determines the conduct of workers in an organisation coupled with how a firm conducts its business.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Japanese Corporate Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Numerous researches on corporate culture have been carried out and the findings indicate that the nature of corporate culture can influence business’ performance either positively or negatively (Kubo and Saka 271). Experts have proposed certain factors that a corporate culture should embody in order to improve economic performance of the company. A good corporate culture should be based on the needs of all stakeholders, employees, customers, and investors (Batyko 17). The culture should be tested for its fitness in the business environment in addition to being flexible to accommodate changes. Flexibility of corporate culture is significant as the business environment keeps on changing and such changes should be reflected in the culture if a company has to flourish in a competitive market (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 727). Corporate culture becomes obsolete with time, and thus it should be revised regularly. A corporate culture might lead to success of a business for a given period after which diminishing results are observed. Research indicates that a strong corporate culture, which is compatible with the business environment, will lead to increased profits for the firm (Lund 219). Corporate culture is thus an important aspect of business and it cannot be ignored in the contemporary business world. The Japanese corporate culture is based on the values that were laid down by Konosuke Matsushita – one of the most famous ancient entrepreneurs in Japan (Batyko 18). The entrepreneur identified customers and employees’ needs as the major components of corporate culture. However, corporate culture should be consistent with the environment within which the business operates. The entrepreneur also emphasised on the need for good relationship among employees, as well as their inclusion in major decision-making process. This essay will analyse the nature of corporate culture in Japan, identify its strengths and weaknesses, and determine whether it helps or hinders companies’ performance.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this paper, the corporate culture in Japan will be analysed thoroughly and a conclusion will be made on whether it promotes the success of companies in the country. Analysing the corporate culture in Japan, the essay will classify the companies into two: the large and small companies General overview of the Japanese corporate culture The Japanese culture of management stands out clearly in large corporations. Management is obliged to create a culture that supports the inclusion of workers in every undertaking (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 726). The aim of inclusions of employees in every undertaking is to maintain a culture of harmony among the stakeholders of the company. The management of the companies are expected to treat their workers with due respect and provide the best incentives to ensure that employees remain committed to delivering quality services. Most companies in Japan are focused on attaining the best quality of products to satisfy the needs of the customers. In a bid to achieve this goal, they recruit the best employees and offer them competitive salaries to maintain them and win their loyalty. In additional to inclusion of workers in the decision-making process, proper commu nication is embraced. Any problem arising in the course of carrying out business is resolved immediately (Cooper-Chen and Tanaka 98). Communication between workers and the management is maintained all the year round and is characterised by frequent feedbacks. For a corporate culture to be effective, the employees’ needs should be addressed. Communication creates a venue through which employees can air their grievances to the management. Communication further creates a good relationship between the managers and employees, which is essential if the company is to achieve its goals. The customers’ needs should be considered when formulating a corporate culture. Customers require high quality goods, which retail at reasonable prices. In other words, customers will remain loyal to firms that give value to their money.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Japanese Corporate Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn Mo re Employees’ incentives and work environment The employees’ working conditions in Japanese companies heavily depend on the size and nature of the firm (Lee and Yu 357). Employees in large companies enjoy better working conditions than those working in smaller ones. The large companies are more efficient than the small ones due to the motivation created through the provision of favourable working conditions to workers (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 725). Employees work for more hours in large companies than in small companies. This aspect means that the output in large companies is higher than in small companies. In addition to the basic salary, workers are compensated for the overtime hours worked (Kubo and Saka 266). This aspect creates a further incentive for workers in large companies to work for additional hours to earn extra income. In the process of devoting more time to work, the output increases, thus leading to extra profits for the companies. Statistics s how that the working hours in large and medium sized companies in Japan are more than 12 hours a day (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 329). Some employees are in support of the long working hours, while others are reluctant to embrace it. Those opposing the long working hour-schemes assert that subjecting workers to long working hours is tantamount to exploitation, and it is against the workers’ rights (Lund 219). Some scholars claim that companies will initially receive brilliant results for the additional time devoted by workers in the short run, but it will have diminishing results in the end due to fatigue (Batyko 19). Companies offer incentives for workers seeking for permanent jobs by availing higher salaries to the permanent employees as compared to casual labourers. Many employees will thus sign agreements for permanent jobs with the companies. The corporate culture in Japan’s large companies tends to exhibit certain similarities. The Japanese job market is based on the â€Å"simultaneous recruitment† and â€Å"lifetime employment† models. Most large companies in the country subject their employees to long working hours in a bid to improve performance (Kubo and Saka 270).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, the employees enjoy numerous employment benefits from the companies in order to remain motivated. Job security is guaranteed under the lifetime employment model and an employee may only leave the company at his or her own discretion. Job placement is based on skills and educational background and only the best employees are selected to occupy vacant positions (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 728). Each employee has the responsibility of working industriously and demonstrate loyalty to the employer. The companies have an appealing incentive scheme for employees and graduates. Firstly, the companies pay their employees competitive salaries coupled with giving job security guarantee. Additional benefits that accrue from employment include housing benefits, life insurance, bonuses, pensions, and recreational facilities among others (Cooper-Chen and Tanaka 104). Secondly, the best workers receive promotions, which come with increased salaries and additional benefits. Th e benefits given to workers ensure that companies retain the best workers, thus increasing efficiency, which results in greater profits and increased chances of success. Bonuses are also afforded twice per year, viz. in the mid-year and at the end of the year. The culture of subjecting workers to long working hours came into existence in the 1920s when it was noted that human labour is an important factor of production in large companies (Batyko 12). However, the scheme has faced opposition from labour unions, thus forcing the companies to reduce the working hours for their employees. Corporate culture in small firms differs greatly from that of large firms. In smaller companies, new employees are recruited as unskilled workers and put under a senior skilled supervisor to teach them (Batyko 13). Such employees spend long periods learning from the experienced supervisors. They are exposed to deep learning of concepts in specific areas as opposed to shallow, but broad coverage seen in large companies. Employees in smaller companies use smaller tools to accomplish their tasks and due to repetition and specialisation, they may produce high quality goods using simple tools (Batyko 17). In most cases, the small companies’ products are used as raw materials in large companies and they rarely sell them directly to the consumer. Labour unions Despite the workers being free to join labour unions, there is a link between companies and the labour unions (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 329). Unions are denied the right to exist as separate entities, and thus companies and labour unions are two inseparable set ups (Kubo and Saka 266). The independence of the labour unions is thus compromised and they cannot achieve a lot. The corporate culture in Japan is successful in eliminating labour strikes, and thus it is rare for employees to go on strikes especially due to the connection between companies and the labour unions (Makino and Roehl 40). In addition, employees are committ ed to the company they work for, and thus they may not be willing to harm the economic wellbeing of the firm. Management corporate culture Another aspect that defines corporate culture in Japan is the aspect of management (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 722). Companies in Japan recruit managers who have the right skills to manage a workforce for the success of the business. The majority of companies in the country have adopted an all-inclusive leadership style (Lund 225). In other words, managers exercise a democratic leadership style that accommodates the inputs of workers in the decision-making process. Decisions are based on a consensus, and thus it is not a one person’s mandate. The inclusion of workers in the decision-making process instils a sense of inclusion and recognition among employees. Workers also feel motivated working on targets that they have created. Employees also tend to compete in terms of performance in various departments in a bid to please their employ ers in order to win promotions. In addition, the inclusion of workers in decision-making brings employees together, thus creating a culture of harmony and teamwork, which may go a long way in improving performance. In addition, managers show concern over the employees’ personal lives; hence, they do not just issue orders to workers (Kubo and Saka 264). This scenario creates a good relationship between the management and employees promoting motivation and understanding. In a recap, the leadership of major companies in Japan plays a key role in the success of their businesses. Proposed changes to Japanese corporate culture Researchers have proposed various changes to the Japanese corporate culture. Among those changes is the mobility of labour (Kubo and Saka 270). The nature of employment in the country is based on a lifetime employment. Employees remain in a given company for the entire live until they are incapacitated and they cannot deliver. This aspect is a great barrier t o labour mobility; hence, new ideas believed to come with mobility of labour are excluded in the workplace. Another proposed change is the structure of management. The representatives of management of companies in Japan are reluctant to take new risks, as they are opposed to changes in the organisation structures (Lee and Yu 351). They are reluctant to recruit foreign workers into their firms and they cannot risk mergers and acquisition (Lund 219). The management should create a reward system for employees for their hard work, innovation, and inventions (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 720). They should create a committee within organisations to scrutinise new investment opportunities. In addition, there should be sufficient incentives for managers to take risks. The proposals for changes in corporate culture started over three decades ago. In the 1980s, some large companies were convinced of the need for change in the corporate structure and they laid off some of their workers only to replace them with other modern methods of increasing production such as promotions, which they believed would boost their sales even when the quality was not high. Inward attitude nature The Japanese corporate structure somehow does not provide room for merge and acquisition (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 307), due to the emphasis made on the inward outlook of companies. The Japanese companies insist on individual success, and thus they overlook the benefits that may accrue from restructuring. The problem is further compounded by the view that the tax rates for some forms of businesses are prohibitive. The tax levied on partnership businesses is high, thus preventing businesses from merging to create such forms of businesses and pool resources together (Rashid, Sambasivan, and Johari 718). Japanese investors also rarely welcome outside investors into their businesses due to the inward attitude that exists. They insist on quality of goods and services in a bid to ensure customer satisfac tion and improve the working conditions for their workers, thus overlooking the importance of businesses coming together for some common purpose through mergers and acquisition, which would go a long way in mobilising resources and lowering costs of operation (Kubo and Saka 265). Therefore, the Japanese corporate culture should embrace diversity as it allows organisations to maximise on disparate ideas of people coming from different regions across the world. Critics The corporate culture in Japan has been criticised for its inflexible nature. Critics argue that the nature of the Japanese corporate culture today is a major hindrance to the development of small and medium size companies. The culture is inflexible, as it does not allow major business developments such as merger and acquisitions. On the issue of merger and acquisition, the corporate culture is not compatible with such restructuring undertakings, which characterise the contemporary businesses across the world. The Japan ese corporate culture emphasises the inward outlook, vertical integration, and provision of quality products for customers. It ignores outsourcing where certain services can be sourced from outside the organisation (Lee and Yu 349). The other critic is the overreliance on the academic community (Lee and Yu 341). The culture only believes that major invention and innovations can only be achieved through employment of academic principles (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 309). This idea is contrary to other ideas in other countries like the US whereby innovation and invention are believed to come from industrial experiments (Lund 223). The Japanese corporate culture also faces criticism due to its emphasis on long job tenures in an attempt to maintain the original workforce (Lee and Yu 348). This aspect is a great barrier to labour mobility, which according to critics leads to the introduction of new ideas in an organisation coupled with increasing competitive intensity (Kubo and Saka 269). Cri tics also argue that the number of women in leadership in Japan is less than required under the current corporate culture. Research based on the leadership trait theory indicates that women leaders possess up to five out of nine traits that are important to leadership, and thus barring them from attaining leadership positions is a factor that contributes to failure of Japanese companies. The alleged five traits are said to be inborn in female leaders, and thus they are believed to deliver more in leadership positions as compared to men. Communication and decision-making In the Japanese corporate culture, the term â€Å"ringi† is used to refer to the process of acquiring inputs from stakeholders before making a decision (Sarra and Nakaghigashi 299). The term is made up of two parts, viz. â€Å"rin†, which refers to the act of submitting a proposal to the authorities or those higher in the hierarchy, and â€Å"gi†, which refers to the process of discussions and de liberations (Lee and Yu 343). In the Japanese corporate culture, a decision must be reached through consensus and not by one person. Employees make proposals to their supervisors on certain key issues through a document referred to as â€Å"ringisho†, which is similar to a circular and it is circulated to all the stakeholders (Kubo and Saka 267). The proposal is peer-reviewed and those involved show support or rejection of the idea by appending a seal on the document. The document finally reaches the top management and the proposal is either upheld or rejected. The originator of the idea must be notified of its acceptance or rejection. If rejected, one is given the opportunity to make changes to the document and repeat the procedure. This aspect ensures that everyone in the company is involved in the making of key decisions. This involvement is healthy since everyone will work on a decision he/she has made. The corporate culture in Japan thus includes the interest of its empl oyees, which is necessary for an inclusive corporate culture. Comparison with other countries One of the factors that makes the Japanese corporate structure unique is the decision-making process. In Japan, consultations have to be made with all stakeholders, and thus a lot of time, which could be used in production, is wasted (Lee and Yu 347). This aspect comes out as both strength and weakness. It becomes strength since decisions are made carefully and the probability of achieving the set target increases. This aspect is in contrast with the decision-making process in other countries whereby the process is executed under the watch of those in management, and thus less time is wasted and quick decisions are made (Lund 223). However, in instances where such decisions are quickly made, chances are that slight mistakes may occur, thus leading to less achievement. Contrary to corporate cultures in other countries, the work life in Japan is more essential than personal life (Kubo and Sak a 268). In Japan, a series of meetings is held even during out of duty hours to deliberate on certain issues concerning the company. An example of such an after-work meeting is the Nomikai party held occasionally to bring together the management and employees to discuss the way forward for companies (Lee and Yu 341). This scenario is different from other countries, where there is a balance between work and personal life and few after-work meetings are held. Additionally, Japanese employees are encouraged to remain in a company through monetary rewards and promotions (Kubo and Saka 262). The more a worker stays in a specific company, the more his/her salary is. The Japanese managerial style is different from companies in other countries. The nature of management in Japanese companies emphasises a bottom up flow of information as opposed to a top- down flow, which is evident in most other countries (Lund 219). The Japanese corporate culture allows employees to formulate policies for c ompanies. Managers cultivate good relationship with their subordinates in a bid to create a culture of harmony in companies. The harmony created is healthy for companies for when workers work in teams efficiency is boosted, which in most cases results in huge profits. The role of decision-making is given to subordinates who place their suggestions to the top managers for consideration in making key decisions. Conclusion Corporate culture determines the success or failure of a business. Therefore, businesses should adopt a corporate culture that best favours the organisational operations. A good corporate culture should include the interest of all stakeholders coupled with being compatible with the business environment. Compatibility of the corporate culture with the environment is a major determinant of the businesses’ success and research indicates that a weak, but compatible corporate culture can outdo a strong corporate culture that is incompatible with the operational env ironment (Lund 219). The corporate culture in Japan differs greatly from corporate cultures in other countries. In Japan, workers are retained for lifetime as long as they can deliver effectively. In a bid to keep employees, competitive salaries and other fringe benefits are availed. However, the system of corporate governance in Japan is criticised for its shortfalls, which include management style that does not encourage innovation and invention. It has also been criticised for its inflexible nature that does not provide room for changes. Overall, the Japanese corporate culture promotes organisational performance, because its merits overrule its demerits. Works Cited Batyko, Richard. â€Å"The Impact of Corporate Culture on Public Relations in Japan: A Case Study Examining Tokyo Electric Powerand Toyota.† Public Relations Journal 6.3 (2012): 1-19. Print. Cooper-Chen, Ann, and Michiyo Tanaka. â€Å"Public relations in Japan: The cultural roots of Kouhou.† Journal of P ublic Relations Research 20.1 (2008): 95-114. Print. Kubo, Izumi, and Ayse Saka. â€Å"An inquiry into the motivations of knowledge workers in the Japanese financial industry.† Journal of Knowledge Management 6.3 (2002): 262-271. Print. Lee, Kim, and Kelvin Yu. â€Å"Corporate culture and organisational performance.† Journal of Managerial Psychology 19.4 (2004): 340-359. Print. Lund, Daulatram. â€Å"Organisational culture and job satisfaction.† Journal of business industrial marketing 18.3 (2003): 219-236. Print. Makino, Shige, and Tome Roehl. â€Å"Learning from Japan: a commentary.† Academy of Management Perspectives 24.4 (2010): 38-45. Print. Rashid, Abdul, Murali Sambasivan, and Juliana Johari. â€Å"The influence of corporate culture and organisational commitment on performance.† Journal of management development 22.8 (2003): 708-728. Print. Sarra, Janis, and Masafumi Nakaghigashi. â€Å"Balancing social and corporate culture in the global economy: the evolution of Japanese corporate structure and norms.† Law Policy 24.4 (2002): 299-354. Print. This essay on Japanese Corporate Culture was written and submitted by user Eleanor Rutledge to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives

En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives By Mark Nichol Some style guides recommend using en dashes in place of hyphens for a wide variety of uses, but The Chicago Manual of Style, the guidebook of record for most American publishing companies, advises a more limited set of applications. According to Chicago style, these sentences would all be written with hyphens, not en dashes: â€Å"He had long flown the San Francisco-Los Angeles run.† â€Å"In 1930, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act went into effect.† â€Å"The final score was 6-5.† â€Å"After discussion, the board voted 6-3 to approve the project.† â€Å"Their father-son rivalry persisted for many years.† â€Å"The Michelson-Morley experiment was a significant milestone on the way to the theory of special relativity.† What, then, are en dashes for? First, they separate two numbers in a number range (as in the inclusive page numbers in a chapter, or the years of birth and death in a person’s life span). Second, the en dash functions as a superhyphen. It is this second function that this post details. In a simple phrasal adjective, two single words that, as a temporary compound, modify a noun are often hyphenated: â€Å"Her high-handed gesture backfired.† (The hyphen’s function is to eliminate ambiguity, so that the sentence is not understood as referring to a handed gesture that is high.) But when the first of the two terms in the temporary compound is itself a compound, the greater suspensive strength of the en dash is employed, as in â€Å"She wears jam jar–bottom glasses† or â€Å"The character’s origins go all the way back to the golden egg–laying magic goose.† Alternately, these sentences can be styled with hyphens between the three words in each phrasal adjective, as in â€Å"She wears jam-jar-bottom glasses† and â€Å"The character’s origins go all the way back to the golden-egg-laying magic goose.† This style is used when en dashes are discouraged or not an option, such as online (on Web sites, en dashes, unlike hyphens, require use of a code) or in newspapers, most of which do not use the longer symbol. However, such use of hyphenation does not demonstrate the subtle relationship between the elements of the phrasal adjective. In addition to linking an open compound to another adjective, an en dash serves to connect a proper noun to a word that indicates resemblance or another relationship: â€Å"The character is part Clint Eastwood–type cowboy.† â€Å"You can see him as a Leonardo da Vinci–like genius.† â€Å"She evolved from being a slick Mata Hari–esque female to a more rounded, tomboyish figure.† This structure clarifies that type refers, for example, to â€Å"Clint Eastwood,† not to â€Å"Eastwood† alone. En dashes connect the concepts in the following phrases: â€Å"Academy Award–winning actor,† pre–Industrial Revolution technology,† â€Å"ex–vice president,† and â€Å"non–United Nations action.† However, when connecting a term to a hyphenated compound, a simple hyphen is used, as in â€Å"non-English-speaking visitors† or â€Å"non-government-sponsored programs.† Another case in which a hyphen, not an en dash, is employed is â€Å"post-9/11,† because the short form of the month-date designation is not considered a compound. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Computer Terms You Should KnowEnglish Grammar 101: Verb Mood25 Idioms with Clean

Managing Diversity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Managing Diversity - Research Paper Example The paper tells that the modern business environment is observed to become increasingly competitive undergoing constant alterations owing to globalization. This certain fact is in turn growing to be a major challenge for the survival of the organizations in the current day context. The rate of globalization is rapidly escalating, simultaneously triggering the need of increased communication in between the people with varied beliefs, backgrounds and cultures compared to the earlier times. Individuals are no more considered to exist in a limited marketplace as the factor of globalization makes them an integral part of the global economy and is believed to face competition from almost all the continents. Owing to such reasons, it becomes necessary for profit as well as non-profit organizations to entail and accept diversity so as to attain increased creativeness along with becoming open to different types of alterations. Capitalizing as well as maximizing on the element of diversity is developing to become quite a significant issue related to management in the present times. Diversity refers to the concept of comprehending, recognizing, accommodating and assessing along with commemorating about the dissimilarities that exists among individuals with regard to class, gender, mental stability, sexual-orientation, status related to public assistance, age, ethnicity, physical competence, race, and spiritual application. The issues associated with diversity are presently regarded as significant and are even anticipated to gain augmented significance in the upcoming days owing to the growing dissimilarities in the population. It is considered to be imperative for the organizations to concentrate on the element of diversity and seek for different ways in order to become completely comprehensive organizations. Diversity is believed to entail the prospective of reaping increased productivity level accompanied with competitive advantages. In this context, managing as well as assessing diversity is learnt to be a vital constituent associated with effectual people management which is competent of enhancing the productivity of the organizations (Rosado, 2006). Concept of Managing Diversity The international environment of business, increased requirements owing to the intense competitiveness and demographic alterations calls for the requirement of diversity. In this regards, managing diversity has been referred to the practice related to learning which paves the path towards overall organizational competence. The development of this competence is measured to be immensely important in a modern organization for the reason of effectually acting in response to the issues as well as prospects that are triggered owing to the existing socio-cultural form of diversity with regard to a particularly distinct social system. Management of diversity is believed to take place by pursuing a definite order of steps with the aid of which individuals as well as organization s progress from lack of knowledge. This is again associated with the definite topic till the stage or a level where the activities with regard to diversity manipulating the organizations, their consequences and their workforce is comprehended (Cox & Beale, 1997). Managing diversity is also referred to the constant process which helps in setting free of the different talents along with proficiencies that is brought into a particular organization, society and community by its respective diverse population with the aim to build a completely inclusive along with wholesome environment. This particular environment is believed to hold increased significance as it helps in effectively managing the differences along with making the most of the entire latent of all the involved individuals which proves to be beneficial for all from a cultural perspective (Rosado, 2006). Diversity is stated to be a budding notion in the current phenomenon. This specific term is believed to be both particular b eing centered on a definite individual and being contextual

Nursing assigment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Nursing assigment - Essay Example Bearing these in mind, the significance of evidence-based practice is highly valuable in proving that health practices are safe for the public and cost-effective. In this paper, barriers and possible resolution of gaps between nursing research and their application are tackled, as well as their utilization through standardized clinical guidelines in relevantly managing smoke cessation in clinical settings. Discrepancies in Evidence-Based Practice Despite the long emergence of concepts in evidenced-based practice in health care sectors, success in fully translating research outcomes into care practices seemed lagging in progress. At large, four main sectors contextually represent the barriers to research employment: â€Å"health-care professional related, organizational-related, research related, and presentation-related† (Chau, Lopez, & Thompson, 2008, p.640). Each division indicates specific areas of clinical problems that probably weaken health professionals in fully respond ing to the positive sides brought about by solid research results. Health-care associated factors may range from personal demographics (educational level, social and economic status), personal characteristics and values, such as knowledge seeking behaviors to further one’s practice. With organizational barriers, these comprise viewpoints of affiliated institutions on its commitment to research adaptation and dissemination, facility maintenance, hierarchical culture and authority for change, administrative support, and lack of opportunities to develop and acquire research resources. As of research-related interference and presentation, types and comprehensiveness of research contents affect professional perceptions, including comparison of previous and present research for results and conflicting thoughts. As such, there is increased tendency to reject research composition and presentation should data fail to meet practical health needs of clinical personnel that research team s aim at satisfying. In more ways, the concerted results of practical nursing barriers create disparities that may unintentionally provide nurses with concrete excuses not to change their old ways. Common among perceived nursing barriers to full research application are said to be generated from organizational, and professionally-related factors. Funk, Tornquist and Champagne (1995, p.397) emphasized â€Å"insufficient authority to (clinical practice) change...and insufficient time to implement new ideas† as primary sources of research to practice discrepancies. The prevailing culture of inflexible organizational structures in most clinical institutions restricts the attitude of change and resource availability in such settings. Elaborately, it also affects sufficiency of time required to search, read, and substantially absorb relevant information from research journals and related materials. To top these off, Cummings, et al. (2007, p.S33) revealed the nature of occupation n urses suffers, where most of the time, exhaustion in both physical and emotional aspects reduce their quality of professional care. There is difficulty, then, to acquire suitable skills in search for relevant studies due

Aoc vs the Constitution Essay Example for Free

Aoc vs the Constitution Essay The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution are only six years apart in history. Knowing this you would think that they have very few differences but it is the complete opposite. As soon as the Articles of Confederation were ratified, it got everyone thinking about how to create a good system of government. That is where the Constitution came in. The Constitution changed almost everything from the Articles of Confederation making the national government a lot more powerful. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. The goal of the Articles was to balance the need for national coordination of the War of Independence with the fear that centralized political power was a threat to liberty of the people. The Articles stated that the new national government was to be a perpetual union. The Articles gave the thirteen states their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. Under the Articles the national government had a one house Congress, where each state cast one vote. There was no president and no judiciary. Major decisions needed the approval of nine states to be passed. There were only a few powers given to the national government which were to declare war, conduct foreign affairs, and make treaties with other governments. Congress did not have financial resources. It did not have the power to levy taxes or to regulate commerce. Revenue came from contributions from the states and in order to amend an Article you needed a unanimous decision from the states. This made it hard to amend or to change anything. The Articles basically made it impossible to have a national government on a large scale. The Constitution of the USA was adopted in 1787. The Constitution created a legislature, an executive, and a national judiciary. Congress was given the right to raise money without having to rely on the states, like in the Articles, and states were prohibited from infringing on the rights of property. The idea was that the government would represent the people. The Constitution established a two house Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate would include two members from each state and the House of Representatives would have members appointed according to the population of the state. Senators would be chosen by state legislatures while the Representatives would be elected by the people. This was the first step toward the expansion of democracy. The Constitution did not set any rules for qualifications to vote; they left that up to the states. The Constitution strengthened national authority. It gave the president the job of enforcing the law and commanding the military. It gave Congress the right to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, declare war, and foreign policy. The Constitution declared the national legislature as the supreme Law of the Land. It did however leave the majority of day to day affairs up to the states such as education and law enforcement. It created a checks and balances system between the states and the national government. This was the idea to prevent any branch of the national government from dominating the other two. I think that the Constitution did a better job protecting liberty. This is because even though there were way more provisions and what seems like way more restrictions, it actually gave guide lines so that your basic rights would not be taken away from you. It also made the voting system more fair and the fact that the House of Representatives were proportioned to the population size also made a lot of sense. It also gave strict provisions to insure that the state could not infringe your land. I also think that the Constitution did a way better job running a government. First of all it was a lot more specific so it cleared up a lot of confusion. Second the two house Congress was a much better idea and the checks and balances were also smart because it ensured that no one ever got too powerful. I also think it is a good thing that they insisted on picking a leader, president, for the whole country because I think you need one man to lead the country and make the decisions rather than a few arguing all the time. Also giving the national government some of the powers that the states once had ensured that the law would be fair to everyone, not just the ones making them in the states. As you can see the differences between these two significant documents of our history are tremendous. While the Articles set a few provisions basically empowering the states, the Constitution did the exact opposite putting the national government in charge. Obviously this was the way to go because this is the document that our country still runs by today.

Domestic Violence: The Tracy Thurman Story :: Violence Against Women Essays

There is one particular case that stands out in my mind when I think of domestic violence. The Tracy Thurman Story. Tracy Thurman was a Connecticut housewife. She suffered a horrendous abuse at the hands of her husband. As the days got older so did the beatings and was more horrified each day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Buck and Tracy got involved she realized that he had a gambling problem. She had confronted him about him losing money while gambling in front of his friends. Buck became furious and punched the door working his way around Tracy. Buck then starts yelling and saying how his mother put a gun to his head and asked Tracy never to leave him. Seeing his vulnerable side, Tracy felt sorry for him. This showed Tracy that Buck had a shattered soul and a sense of humanity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Not too long, after Tracy found out she was pregnant. After telling Buck the news, he beat her for the first time. Tracy then leaves from Florida to Connecticut, her hometown and stays with a close friend. Buck follows her to Connecticut and begs, pleads, and promises that it will never happen again. They then get married, stayed in Connecticut, and had a baby boy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Buck is unable to find work and convinces Tracy to move back to Florida. After losing a game of cards, he goes to rage and beats Tracy again leaving her two black eyes. Tracy moves back to Connecticut, only to have Buck follow her and takes the baby away from Tracy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At this point Tracy gets a restraining order against Buck. He is not allowed in the state of Connecticut, and Tracy’s home. She sees Buck standing in front of her home and calls the police. The police cannot find the court order against Buck. When the officer comes to the house and tells Tracy that her husband has a right to stand in the street and it would be easier if they weren’t married.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A couple days later, Buck is outraged. He goes to Tracy’s house again screaming for her to come out of the house. This time he doesn’t let up. Tracy then calls the police again and tells them that Buck is outside her house again and wants a patrol car to come by the house. The officer takes a detour back to the station. The officer takes forever to get to the house.

Coopertaive Learning

Cooperative learning is a teaching method used by educators in all grade levels, in all areas of curriculum, and there are many different ways that cooperative learning can be applied in the classroom. The use of cooperative learning centralizes on the goal of getting students to understand the material presented. Cooperative learning allows students to communicate their ideas with each other, brainstorm responses or ideas, and work together to solve problems. The importance of students becoming more involved with the learning process has been emphasized and needs to be implemented in classrooms around the globe (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Multiple studies have been conducted on student-lead learning groups and the results are supportive of cooperative learning. â€Å"Research on cooperative learning is one of the greatest success stories in the history of educational research† (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). The enthusiasm for cooperative learning is widespread and this paper will explore the history and methods of cooperative learning. The strategy of cooperative learning was developed to reduce competition in American schools (Knowles, 1971). Knowles explains that in 1959 James Coleman sought to reduce competition in American schools, which he deemed to be a negative component to the education system (1971). Coleman conducted a two-year study of students at nine Midwest high schools and developed what he called a â€Å"climate of values† for the â€Å"adolescent society† in which he conducted his study. Based on his findings and research, Coleman suggested that instead of encouraging competition in a classroom setting, which he stated he felt impedes the process of education, schools should introduce a more cooperative approach to instruction (Knowles, 1971). Many researchers have since elaborated on the work of James Coleman. Currently, some of the most published researchers in the field are as follows: Dr. Robert Slavin, Dr. Spencer Kagan, David and Roger Johnson. Each of these researchers has developed theories and strategies that can be used to effective implement cooperative learning. Dr. Robert Slavin suggests cooperative learning for enhancing student achievement focuses on two important elements: group goals and individual accountability (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin reported that when group goals and individual accountability are used, achievement effects of cooperative learning are consistently positive (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin noted that positive results from the implementation of cooperative learning could be found at all grade levels, in all major subjects, and in rural, urban and suburban schools (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin goes on to state that the effects of cooperative education are equally positive for all levels of achievers (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). It is also important to mention that Dr. Slavin has found that the positive effects of cooperative learning have been found in areas such as the following: self-esteem, intergroup relations, acceptance of accountability, handicapped students, attitudes toward school and the ability to work cooperatively (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Spencer Kagan’s model of cooperative learning advocates for two basic principles. Dr. Kagan states, â€Å"The world is not just competitive and in some important respects is becoming less so; I do not advocate exclusive use of cooperative learning methods, but rather a healthy balance of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic classroom structures to prepare students for the full range of social situations† (Kagan, 1999). Dr. Kagan’s structures stress positive interpersonal peer relationships, equality, self-esteem and achievement. Dr. Kagan reported that cooperative learning teaches empathy and an understanding of those who are different from oneself by building ethnic relation between students. In addition, Dr. Kagan has credited cooperative learning with increasing students’ higher level thinking skills (Kagan, 1999). Dr. Kagan stresses his ideas by stating, â€Å"At an accelerating rate we move into a rapidly changing information-based, high -technology, and interdependent economy. Along with the traditional role of providing students with basic skills and information, increasingly schools must produce students capable of higher-level thinking skills, communication skills, and social skills† (Kagan, 1999). David and Roger Johnson have identified five basic elements of cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson state these pillars of cooperative learning to be the following: individual accountability, positive interdependence, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills and group processing (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Johnson and Johnson have reported that it is critical for teachers to understand the five basic elements of cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson state that understanding and developing the five elements, â€Å"†¦allows teachers to (a) adapt cooperative learning to their unique circumstances, needs, and students, (b) fine tune their use of cooperative learning, and (c) prevent and solve problems students have in working together (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Johnson and Johnson also stress that cooperative learning ensures all students are meaningfully and actively involved in learning, which will limit disruptive, off-task behaviors in the classroom. Cooperative learning is thought of as a versatile method of instruction that can be used in a variety of ways. Cooperative learning groups can be implemented to teach specific topic, to ensure knowledge and comprehension of information presented, or to provide long-term support for academic proce ss (Slavin & Madden, 2001). Formal cooperative learning groups are created to achieve a specific purpose, have fixed members and can have duration of one class period or several weeks. Johnson and Johnson describe formal cooperative learning groups as consisting of students working together to achieve a shared learning goal (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Informal cooperative learning groups are typically temporary and do not have fixed members. Johnson and Johnson state that, â€Å"During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal cooperative learning can be used to (a) focus student attention on the material being learned, (b) set a mood conductive to learning, (c) help set expectations as to what will be covered in a class session, (d) ensure that students cognitively process material being taught, and (e) provide closure to an instructional session. † (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Cooperative based groups are long term, heterogeneous, and consist of three to four members. Johnson and Johnson describe cooperative based groups as base groups. Johnson and Johnson state, â€Å"Base groups give the support, encouragement, and assistance each member needs to make academic progress and develop cognitively and socially in healthy ways. Base groups meet daily in elementary school and twice a week in secondary school. They are permanent and provide the long-term caring peer relationships necessary to influence members consistently to work hard in school (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). In order for these types of cooperative learning group to be successful, it is essential for the five basic elements identified by Johnson and Johnson to be included. The basic elements are often referenced by the acronym â€Å"PIGS FACE†. If these elements are not incorporated then cooperative learning is not taking place. The five basic elements are outlined below with a description following each term. Positive interdependence is the percept ion gains that of individuals or groups are linked, so that one cannot succeed unless everyone is successful (Kagan, 1999) (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Individual accountability exists when each individual group member is assessed and results are given back to the student and the group. Individual accountability tests for understanding from individuals and prevents one member of the group from performing all the work (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Group processing exists when group members converse on the group achievement and individual achievement of goals. Group processing allows students to work through and difficulties relating to each other or the achievement of the group (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Social skills are the skills cooperative education groups need to develop to effectively work together and maintain the group (Slavin & Madden, 2001). It fosters the growth of social skills that are needed to succeed in the classroom, workplace and community in individuals that are socially unskilled (Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan, & Brown, 2010). Face-to-face promotive interaction promotes each group member’s success through helping, assisting, supporting, and encouraging each member to be successful (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Once the five basic elements of cooperative learning have been addressed, the teacher can implement cooperative learning strategies in the classroom. There are wide varieties of cooperative learning strategies and a few are described below. Think-Pair-Share as described by Dr. Slavin, â€Å"This is a four-step discussion strategy that incorporates wait time and aspects of cooperative learning. Students and teachers learn to listen while a question is posed, think of a response, pair with a neighbor to discuss responses, and share their responses with the whole class. (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). Jigsaw as described by Dr. Kagan, â€Å"Students are divided into competency groups of four to six students, each of which is given a list of subtopics to research. Individual members of each group then break off to work with the â€Å"experts† from other groups, researching a part of the material being studied, after which they return to their starting body in the role of instructor for their subcategory. (Kagan, 1999) Student Team Achievement Divisions is a teaching method that is made up of five major components including a whole group presentation, student practice teams, quizzes on the presented information, setting goals for improved achievement levels, and team recognition based on performance (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). Roundtable is a strategy that can be used for brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while fostering teambuilding. There are two variations of roundtable that a teacher and use in the classroom. In sequential form, students are in groups of three or more with one-piece of paper and one writing instrument. The teacher poses a question that can have multiple answers. Students take turns writing their answer on the paper and passing the paper around the group. When time is called, the group with the most answers listed is recognized. In simultaneous form each student starts with a piece of paper, writes an answer and passes the paper, so multiple papers are being passed at once (Kagan, 1999). The three-step interview is a structured group activity. Students take turns being the interviewer and interviewee. Pairs then join to form groups of four. Students take turns introducing their partners and share what they learned from their partners (Kagan, 1999). Although aforementioned strategies are imperially based, there is a discussion-taking place about the value of cooperative learning. Most educators agree that cooperative learning celebrates diversity by allowing students to work with all types of people and allows students to acknowledge individual differences (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Research has shown that cooperative learning can benefit student’s interpersonal development and provide more opportunities for personal feedback (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). In addition, researchers have found that cooperative learning actively engages students in learning and there is a variety of methods available for teachers to use (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis, 2000). Some critics of cooperative learning suggest that group work is an avoidance of teaching. They stress that cooperative learning places the burden of being responsible for each other’s learning on group members (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Some research has shown that lower achieving students could potentially fall behind due to a passive nature or lack of self-confidence in the group. If high achieving students dominate group activities and discussions, lower achieving students might feel uncomfortable and isolated from the group, which could lead to the learning opportunity passing by them (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Johnson, Johnson and Stanne summarize the research on cooperative learning in this way, â€Å"Knowing that cooperative learning can significantly increase student achievement when properly implemented does not mean, however, that all operationalizations of cooperative will be effective or that all operationalizations will be equally effective. † (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis, 2000) In conclusion, cooperative learning is an instructional approach that has been shown to promote a variety of positive cognitive, affective, and social outcomes. The intent of cooperative learning is to foster academic achievement through student discussions, learning from each other and dividing tasks to align with student strengths. I feel that cooperative learning gives students an opportunity to establish a group culture and work within the constraints of that culture. I believe that students will carry this cultural paradigm into adulthood. I also believe that cooperative learning promotes diversity and cross-cultural friendships. Through cooperative learning, I believe schools can play a significant role in reducing racism, prejudice and discrimination in the larger society.